There are many prominent figures in the development of second language acquisition. These people have contributed many theories and have had profound influence on the subject. They have provided some insights into what we can achieve in language as a whole. In dealing with this, I have chosen Stephen Krashen and Noam Chomsky as the prominent figures to discuss upon.
Stephen Krashen
Stephen Krashen was born in Chicago, Illinois in 1941. He is professor emeritus at the University of Southern California, who moved from the department of linguistics to the Faculty of Education in 1994. He is famously known as a linguist, an educational researcher, and an activist. He also holds a black belt in Tae Kwon Do and has spent 2 years in Ethiopia teaching English and Science with the Peace Corps. He has published more than 350 papers and books, contributing to the fields of second language acquisition, bilingual education, and reading. He is credited with introducing various influential concepts and terms in the study of second language acquisition, with the most famous and widely practiced around the world is the five key hypotheses in language learning he promotes which is the acquisition-learning hypothesis, the input hypothesis, the monitor hypothesis, the affective filter, and the natural order hypothesis.
The acquisition-learning hypothesis discusses that adults have two different ways to develop competence in a language: language acquisition and language learning. Language acquisition is a subconscious process not unlike the way a child learns language. In a non-technical language, acquisition is 'picking-up' a language. Language learning, on the other hand, refers to the conscious knowledge of a second language, knowing the rules, being aware of them, and being able to talk about them. Thus language learning can be compared to learning about a language. The natural order hypothesis states that the acquisition of grammatical structures proceeds in a predictable order. For a given language, some grammatical structures tend to be acquired early, others late, regardless of the first language of a speaker. However, this does not mean that grammar should be taught in this natural order of acquisition. The monitor hypothesis asserts that a learner's learned system acts as a monitor to what they are producing. In other words, while only the acquired system is able to produce spontaneous speech, the learned system is used to check what is being spoken.
According to the affective filter hypothesis, certain emotions, such as anxiety, self-doubt, and mere boredom interfere with the process of acquiring a second language. They function as a filter between the speaker and the listener that reduces the amount of language input the listener is able to understand. These negative emotions prevent efficient processing of the language input. The hypothesis further states that the blockage can be reduced by sparking interest, providing low anxiety environments and bolstering the learner's self-esteem. He is also instrumental in the campaign to defend bilingual education which he aggressively campaigned in public forums, media talk shows, and conducted numerous interviews with journalists discussing the subject. Most recently, Krashen promotes the use of free voluntary reading during second language acquisition, which he describes as pleasure reading for the fun and relaxing. He believes that recreational reading is a very good practice for low intermediate and intermediate language acquirers.
Noam Chomsky
Avram Noam Chomsky was born on December 7, 1928 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. He is a Jewish American linguist, philosopher, cognitive scientist and political activist. He is an Institute Professor and professor emeritus of linguistics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) where, as of 2008, he has taught continuously for 53 years. He is well known in the academic community as one of the fathers of modern linguistics.
In the 1950s, Chomsky began developing his theory of generative grammar, which has undergone numerous revisions and has had a profound influence on linguistics. His approach to the study of language emphasizes an innate set of linguistic principles shared by all human known as universal grammar, the initial state of the language learner, and discovering an account for linguistic variation via the most general possible mechanisms. He elaborated on these ideas in 1957's Syntactic Structures, which then laid the groundwork for the concept of transformational grammar. He also established the Chomsky hierarchy, a classification of formal languages in terms of their generative power. In 1959, Chomsky published a widely influential review of B. F. Skinner's theoretical book Verbal Behavior, which was the first attempt by a behaviorist to provide a functional, operant analysis of language. In this review and other writings, Chomsky broadly and aggressively challenged the behaviorist approaches to studies of behavior dominant at the time, and contributed to the cognitive revolution in psychology. His naturalistic approach to the study of language has influenced the philosophy of language and mind.
It is a popular misconception that Chomsky proved that language is entirely innate and discovered a ‘universal grammar’ (UG). In fact, Chomsky simply observed that while a human baby and a kitten are both capable of inductive reasoning, if they are exposed to the exact same linguistic data, the human child will always acquire the ability to understand and produce language, while the kitten will never acquire either ability. Chomsky labeled whatever the relevant capacity the human has which the cat lacks the "language acquisition device" (LAD) and suggested that one of the tasks for linguistics should be to figure out what the LAD is and what constraints it puts on the range of possible human languages. The universal features that would result from these constraints are often termed "universal grammar" or UG. The Principles and Parameters approach (P&P) make strong claims regarding universal grammar: that the grammatical principles underlying languages are innate and fixed, and the differences among the world's languages can be characterized in terms of parameter settings in the brain, which are often likened to switches.
Conclusion
These 2 prominent figures have provided the language as a whole, many concepts on acquisition of a second language and also on linguistics. In part due, we also have to thank them for liberating us from the gripping and fascist-like teaching of behaviorism and introducing the cognitive approach where the learning is based on the human brain capacity and ability.
Monday, April 19, 2010
Integrating the Four Skills
Historically, the four skills were taught separately. The trend today in a lesson is to integrate the four skills which is listening, reading, writing and speaking. In this way, the lesson models for the students the real life integration of the language skills, and allows the teacher more flexibility to create interesting lessons. However, there are certain specific purposes for which students are studying English that may best be labeled by one of the four skills, especially at the high-intermediate and advanced levels.
It is utilised because production (speaking/writing) and reception (listening/reading) go together. Interaction involves more than one skill which is sending and receiving messages. There is a relationship between written and spoken language that reflects language, culture & society. So we teach the students how to use the language, not just the forms. Skills reinforce each other: we learn to speak from what we hear, and to write from what we read.
There are several models that have been brought upon; the first one is the content-based instruction, model that is integrating learning subject content with learning of a language. Curriculum dictated more by subject than language forms. The second language is just the medium for conveying informational content of interest to the learner. Learners are focused on useful, practical objectives as the subject matter is perceived to be relevant to long-term goals. This increases intrinsic motivation. As you teach a content based program you need to think of the best way to present the topic; it would be difficult to do so without using all four skills such as reading, discussing, solving problems, analyzing data, writing opinions and others.
The second model is the task-based language teaching, which organises a course around the communicative tasks learners need to engage in outside of the classroom. Implies several integrated skills in its focus on language in the real world. Focus is not the form of the language, but the functional purposes for which language may be used. Content–based focused on subject matter, but it focuses on a whole set of real world tasks such as exchanging opinions, reading newspapers and menus, writing letters and e-mails. These tasks usually involve several skills, not just one.
The third model is theme-based instruction, which is not the same as content-based instruction. It is a weak form of content-based instruction. It places equal value on content and language objectives. Curriculum is still organised around subject-matter area, but the teacher and students realize language has an equal role. Students learn by focusing on the content with peripheral attention paid to language. Numerous ESL texts use this approach especially intermediate to advance learners.
The fourth model is experiential learning, which involves giving students concrete experiences through which they ‘discover’ language principles (even if subconsciously) by trial and error, by processing feedback, by building hypotheses about language, and by revising these assumptions in order to become fluent. Teachers do not tell students how language works; they give students opportunities to use language as they go through a variety of experiences. It is also a direct contact with the subject matter or topic rather than reading or talking about it.
The last model is the episode hypothesis, which believed that the presentation of language was enhanced if students receive interconnected sentences in an interesting episode rather than disconnected sentences. Stories are universal, so students from around the world can understand their organisational structure and identify with characters. Episodes and integrated skills teaching: the episodes can be spoken, read aloud, read silently, or students can write their own, or they can act them out, etc.
All the models discussed here have several advantages which are that they are a crucial elements in learning, a good procedure for teachers to implement in the classroom. All the four skills reinforce each other and can be utilised in wide ranges of activities where all the skills can be used. With careful reflection and planning, any teacher can integrate the language skills and strengthen the tapestry of language teaching and learning. When the tapestry is woven well, learners can use English effectively for communication.
It is utilised because production (speaking/writing) and reception (listening/reading) go together. Interaction involves more than one skill which is sending and receiving messages. There is a relationship between written and spoken language that reflects language, culture & society. So we teach the students how to use the language, not just the forms. Skills reinforce each other: we learn to speak from what we hear, and to write from what we read.
There are several models that have been brought upon; the first one is the content-based instruction, model that is integrating learning subject content with learning of a language. Curriculum dictated more by subject than language forms. The second language is just the medium for conveying informational content of interest to the learner. Learners are focused on useful, practical objectives as the subject matter is perceived to be relevant to long-term goals. This increases intrinsic motivation. As you teach a content based program you need to think of the best way to present the topic; it would be difficult to do so without using all four skills such as reading, discussing, solving problems, analyzing data, writing opinions and others.
The second model is the task-based language teaching, which organises a course around the communicative tasks learners need to engage in outside of the classroom. Implies several integrated skills in its focus on language in the real world. Focus is not the form of the language, but the functional purposes for which language may be used. Content–based focused on subject matter, but it focuses on a whole set of real world tasks such as exchanging opinions, reading newspapers and menus, writing letters and e-mails. These tasks usually involve several skills, not just one.
The third model is theme-based instruction, which is not the same as content-based instruction. It is a weak form of content-based instruction. It places equal value on content and language objectives. Curriculum is still organised around subject-matter area, but the teacher and students realize language has an equal role. Students learn by focusing on the content with peripheral attention paid to language. Numerous ESL texts use this approach especially intermediate to advance learners.
The fourth model is experiential learning, which involves giving students concrete experiences through which they ‘discover’ language principles (even if subconsciously) by trial and error, by processing feedback, by building hypotheses about language, and by revising these assumptions in order to become fluent. Teachers do not tell students how language works; they give students opportunities to use language as they go through a variety of experiences. It is also a direct contact with the subject matter or topic rather than reading or talking about it.
The last model is the episode hypothesis, which believed that the presentation of language was enhanced if students receive interconnected sentences in an interesting episode rather than disconnected sentences. Stories are universal, so students from around the world can understand their organisational structure and identify with characters. Episodes and integrated skills teaching: the episodes can be spoken, read aloud, read silently, or students can write their own, or they can act them out, etc.
All the models discussed here have several advantages which are that they are a crucial elements in learning, a good procedure for teachers to implement in the classroom. All the four skills reinforce each other and can be utilised in wide ranges of activities where all the skills can be used. With careful reflection and planning, any teacher can integrate the language skills and strengthen the tapestry of language teaching and learning. When the tapestry is woven well, learners can use English effectively for communication.
First Language Acquisition & Second Language Acquisition
Language acquisition is the process by which humans acquire the capacity to perceive, produce and use words to understand and communicate. This capacity involves the picking up of diverse capacities including syntax, phonetics, and an extensive vocabulary. Language acquisition usually refers to first language acquisition, which studies infants' acquisition of their native language, rather than second language acquisition that deals with acquisition in both children and adults of additional languages.
There have been debates throughout history on how humans or rather infants acquire or learn language. The first known theory in history has come from Plato; he felt that the word-meaning mapping in some form was innate. Sanskrit grammarians debated over twelve centuries whether meaning was god-given (possibly innate) or was learned from older convention - e.g. a child learning the word for cow by listening to trusted speakers talking about cows. In modern times, empiricists argued that knowledge language emerge ultimately from abstracted sense impressions. Under Behaviourism, it was argued that language may be learned through a form of operant conditioning. This behaviourist idea was strongly attacked by Noam Chomsky in a review article in 1959, calling it ‘largely mythology’ and a ‘serious delusion’. Instead, Chomsky argued for a more theoretical approach, based on a study of syntax.
There are 3 general approaches that have been identified with which is the social interactionism with its theory consists of a number of hypotheses on language acquisition. These hypotheses deal with written, spoken, or visual social tools which consist of complex systems of symbols and rules on language acquisition and development. They are the language behaviours that nature provides innately and the behaviours that are realized by environmental exposure, which is nurture. The second approach is the relational frame theory that provides a wholly selectionist/learning account of the origin and development of language competence and complexity. Based upon the principles of Skinnerian behaviorism, RFT posits that children acquire language purely through interacting with the environment. The third approach is Emergentism theories which posit that language acquisition is a cognitive process that emerges from the interaction of biological pressures and the environment. According to these theories, neither nature nor nurture alone is sufficient to trigger language learning; both of these influences must work together in order to allow children to acquire a language.
Children first acquire language as infants by hearing the language from their immediate surroundings such as their parents. They have their own complex way of communication which is crying to show unpleasant means and smiling or cooing to show pleasant means. Infants are aware of sounds and their potential significance. By four months of age, babies can read lips and discriminate speech sounds. By six months, infants turn to more language-like which is babbling or consonant-vowel sequences. Infants use appropriate stress and intonation to express meaning and to distinguish among such things as statements, questions and commands. The relationship between babbling and words is non linear which indicates babbling as 60-80% during 10-11 months of age but decreases in 2-4 months later; words increased from 10-20% to 40-50% during this and there is a point where this line will cross each other’s path. Once this occurs, there seems to be a drop-off in the amount of babbling.
Children use words to fulfill a number of functions such as refer to objects, such as ba for bottle. This indicates a wide range of grammatical functions, such as commands (I want my bottle) or serves social functions, such as bye and hi. One word in child language can refer to 2 words in adults’ language. Children often use overextension – 1 word refers to many things such as bear to refer to a stuffed toy lion and a picture of a tiger or a physical object placed on a head (e.g., a book) can be referred to as a hat. They also use under extension - using words with more restricted meanings than the word has in adult usage. Children’s speech sounds and pronunciation are not exactly identical to that of adult speech. They often substitutes because children clearly can perceive a difference, although they do not make the difference in their own speech. Then, their speech becomes telegraphic: much like the ones commonly used when sending a telegram. Children go through the same developmental stages, although not necessarily at the same rate.
The studies of second language acquisition are only 40–45 years which is considered a young field. It examines how second languages are learned and the acquisition of a language beyond the native language and also how learners create a new language system with only limited exposure to a second language. This is then expanded into 3 schools of thoughts which are the main characteristics of language learning which is behaviourism, cognitivisim and constructivism. Behaviourism emerged in 1940s and 1950s and focuses only on the objectively observable aspects of learning. Learning is based on human responses that can be perceived, recorded and measured. It used the scientific approach. In teaching, we need to teach students good habits to learn. There are two typical models which is Classical conditioning (Pavlov’s dog) and Operant conditioning (Skinner’s boxes). Conditioning is a 3-stage procedure which is stimulus, response & reinforcement. Educational approaches of this school includes applied behavior analysis, curriculum based measurement and direct instruction. Notable behaviorists are Ivan Pavlov and B. F. Skinner who is famous for his book, Verbal Behavior.
The second school of thoughts is cognitivism which looks beyond behaviour to explain brain-based learning. It requires significance of meaning, understanding, and knowing. Cognitivists criticises behaviorists for being too dependent on overt behavior to explain learning. They also consider how human memory works to promote learning such as the ability of short term and long term memory. There are two key assumptions which are that the memory system is an active organised processor of information and that prior knowledge plays an important role in learning. Aspects of cognitivism can be found in learning how to learn, social role acquisition, intelligence, learning and memory as related to age. Notable cognitivists are like Noam Chomsky and Stephen Krashen.
The third school of thoughts is constructivism which is a process in which the learner actively constructs or builds new ideas or concepts based upon current and past knowledge or experience. It is very personal in that it internalised concepts, rules, and general principles may consequently be applied in a practical real-world contexts. Knowledge is constructed when individuals engage socially in talk and activity about shared problems or tasks. It promotes a student's free exploration within a given framework or structure. Teacher acts as a facilitator who encourages students to discover principles for themselves and to construct knowledge by working to solve realistic problems. Aspects of constructivism can be found in self-directed learning, transformational learning, experiential learning, situated cognition, reflective practice and religious practice. Notable constructivists include Jean Piaget, Lev Vygotsky and Immanuel Kant.
There have been debates throughout history on how humans or rather infants acquire or learn language. The first known theory in history has come from Plato; he felt that the word-meaning mapping in some form was innate. Sanskrit grammarians debated over twelve centuries whether meaning was god-given (possibly innate) or was learned from older convention - e.g. a child learning the word for cow by listening to trusted speakers talking about cows. In modern times, empiricists argued that knowledge language emerge ultimately from abstracted sense impressions. Under Behaviourism, it was argued that language may be learned through a form of operant conditioning. This behaviourist idea was strongly attacked by Noam Chomsky in a review article in 1959, calling it ‘largely mythology’ and a ‘serious delusion’. Instead, Chomsky argued for a more theoretical approach, based on a study of syntax.
There are 3 general approaches that have been identified with which is the social interactionism with its theory consists of a number of hypotheses on language acquisition. These hypotheses deal with written, spoken, or visual social tools which consist of complex systems of symbols and rules on language acquisition and development. They are the language behaviours that nature provides innately and the behaviours that are realized by environmental exposure, which is nurture. The second approach is the relational frame theory that provides a wholly selectionist/learning account of the origin and development of language competence and complexity. Based upon the principles of Skinnerian behaviorism, RFT posits that children acquire language purely through interacting with the environment. The third approach is Emergentism theories which posit that language acquisition is a cognitive process that emerges from the interaction of biological pressures and the environment. According to these theories, neither nature nor nurture alone is sufficient to trigger language learning; both of these influences must work together in order to allow children to acquire a language.
Children first acquire language as infants by hearing the language from their immediate surroundings such as their parents. They have their own complex way of communication which is crying to show unpleasant means and smiling or cooing to show pleasant means. Infants are aware of sounds and their potential significance. By four months of age, babies can read lips and discriminate speech sounds. By six months, infants turn to more language-like which is babbling or consonant-vowel sequences. Infants use appropriate stress and intonation to express meaning and to distinguish among such things as statements, questions and commands. The relationship between babbling and words is non linear which indicates babbling as 60-80% during 10-11 months of age but decreases in 2-4 months later; words increased from 10-20% to 40-50% during this and there is a point where this line will cross each other’s path. Once this occurs, there seems to be a drop-off in the amount of babbling.
Children use words to fulfill a number of functions such as refer to objects, such as ba for bottle. This indicates a wide range of grammatical functions, such as commands (I want my bottle) or serves social functions, such as bye and hi. One word in child language can refer to 2 words in adults’ language. Children often use overextension – 1 word refers to many things such as bear to refer to a stuffed toy lion and a picture of a tiger or a physical object placed on a head (e.g., a book) can be referred to as a hat. They also use under extension - using words with more restricted meanings than the word has in adult usage. Children’s speech sounds and pronunciation are not exactly identical to that of adult speech. They often substitutes because children clearly can perceive a difference, although they do not make the difference in their own speech. Then, their speech becomes telegraphic: much like the ones commonly used when sending a telegram. Children go through the same developmental stages, although not necessarily at the same rate.
The studies of second language acquisition are only 40–45 years which is considered a young field. It examines how second languages are learned and the acquisition of a language beyond the native language and also how learners create a new language system with only limited exposure to a second language. This is then expanded into 3 schools of thoughts which are the main characteristics of language learning which is behaviourism, cognitivisim and constructivism. Behaviourism emerged in 1940s and 1950s and focuses only on the objectively observable aspects of learning. Learning is based on human responses that can be perceived, recorded and measured. It used the scientific approach. In teaching, we need to teach students good habits to learn. There are two typical models which is Classical conditioning (Pavlov’s dog) and Operant conditioning (Skinner’s boxes). Conditioning is a 3-stage procedure which is stimulus, response & reinforcement. Educational approaches of this school includes applied behavior analysis, curriculum based measurement and direct instruction. Notable behaviorists are Ivan Pavlov and B. F. Skinner who is famous for his book, Verbal Behavior.
The second school of thoughts is cognitivism which looks beyond behaviour to explain brain-based learning. It requires significance of meaning, understanding, and knowing. Cognitivists criticises behaviorists for being too dependent on overt behavior to explain learning. They also consider how human memory works to promote learning such as the ability of short term and long term memory. There are two key assumptions which are that the memory system is an active organised processor of information and that prior knowledge plays an important role in learning. Aspects of cognitivism can be found in learning how to learn, social role acquisition, intelligence, learning and memory as related to age. Notable cognitivists are like Noam Chomsky and Stephen Krashen.
The third school of thoughts is constructivism which is a process in which the learner actively constructs or builds new ideas or concepts based upon current and past knowledge or experience. It is very personal in that it internalised concepts, rules, and general principles may consequently be applied in a practical real-world contexts. Knowledge is constructed when individuals engage socially in talk and activity about shared problems or tasks. It promotes a student's free exploration within a given framework or structure. Teacher acts as a facilitator who encourages students to discover principles for themselves and to construct knowledge by working to solve realistic problems. Aspects of constructivism can be found in self-directed learning, transformational learning, experiential learning, situated cognition, reflective practice and religious practice. Notable constructivists include Jean Piaget, Lev Vygotsky and Immanuel Kant.
Evaluation of Language Learning Experiences
In discussing the process of language learning through past experiences, we have to know the principles of teachings. There are 3 different models or theories that are being used: behaviourism, cognitivism and constructivism. As with any categorisation of this sort, the divisions are a bit arbitrary: there could be further additions and sub-divisions to the scheme, and there are various ways in which the theories overlap and draw upon each other. This discussion is focused on the relations between past experiences and the current state of language learning.
In the old-days, that is in primary schools circa 1988 to 1993, the main purpose is to develop the students capacity and skills in reading and writing with a bit of emphasis on speaking because primary schools are divided according to their language. Then, in secondary school, the purpose is more or less the same as in primary school but emphasized more on communication as the population of ethnics’ diversed although there are also schools that major on other languages such as Arabic and Chinese. Later on, as in the current state, the main purpose is communication as the social circle gets wider and it is common to work with other races and all sorts of people from around the world. It is also because to prepare the students for the future as globalisation hits this country, the students are well-equipped to face the reality of working.
The similarities between now and then is more on the main purpose itself that is to be well-equipped in languages because it is the tool to break the barriers between races and also the keys to knowledge. That is to be able to communicate and to learn knowledge from different sources or people. The other similarities are its principles; more or less they are quite the same. It is sufficed to say that its contents like grammatical rules and vocabulary are the same although the emphases are different according to the teachers and students themselves. They choose whichever parts of the contents that need to be emphasised more or just following the set of procedures that are already done. But the most similar thing about language learning now and then is that the teachers, albeit not all are always passionate and is very enthusiastic about sharing the knowledge they know and always strive to facilitate a fun and interesting way of learning in the classroom such as acting out or making faces or even imitating sounds of animals.
There are many differences that can be discussed here so it is divided into several categories that are the human itself, the environment and the approach.
For us humans, it is only natural that as you age, your intellectual quotient will be higher. The older, the wiser, as the saying goes, but to explain it further in scientific contexts, it is the human brains’ capacity to process information or input that is being given. As a child, the line between fantasy and reality is not a fine one; everything is like in the animated cartoons they watched and always think of a fairy-tale like to relate to the learning. As they grow older and conscious about their environment, they are capable of a more sophisticated ways of learning. The ability to comprehend complicated matters is higher. In the current state, as we mature, it is easier to understand something complex although the IQ is different between people according to their efforts and exposure to a certain language.
Then, there is the environment factor that as a child, the world is one big playground and the simple mind of a child is very unique in that it receives information without filtering of some kind. As teens, with raging hormones and increasing IQ levels, we perceive the world differently, more conscious to other’s needs and feelings. Emotions might get in the way of learning as they will highly likely to fall in love or had the urge to challenge the authority. The exposure is wider in the current state as we mingle with different people from around the world with their different cultures and the need for higher levels of communication is greater.
Finally, the approach is very different because then, it is more focused on teaching new things and the teachers have the authority. Therefore the learning is more on explanations rather than executions. Now, it is more focused on the use of the language rather than about the language. The communication goes both ways. Self-correct is encouraged and feedbacks from the students are always welcomed in order to prepare for better ways of learning in the future.
There is no right and wrong here, only that it is more on the choices of procedures of learning that is considered sufficient for the learning to expand and executed efficiently.
In the old-days, that is in primary schools circa 1988 to 1993, the main purpose is to develop the students capacity and skills in reading and writing with a bit of emphasis on speaking because primary schools are divided according to their language. Then, in secondary school, the purpose is more or less the same as in primary school but emphasized more on communication as the population of ethnics’ diversed although there are also schools that major on other languages such as Arabic and Chinese. Later on, as in the current state, the main purpose is communication as the social circle gets wider and it is common to work with other races and all sorts of people from around the world. It is also because to prepare the students for the future as globalisation hits this country, the students are well-equipped to face the reality of working.
The similarities between now and then is more on the main purpose itself that is to be well-equipped in languages because it is the tool to break the barriers between races and also the keys to knowledge. That is to be able to communicate and to learn knowledge from different sources or people. The other similarities are its principles; more or less they are quite the same. It is sufficed to say that its contents like grammatical rules and vocabulary are the same although the emphases are different according to the teachers and students themselves. They choose whichever parts of the contents that need to be emphasised more or just following the set of procedures that are already done. But the most similar thing about language learning now and then is that the teachers, albeit not all are always passionate and is very enthusiastic about sharing the knowledge they know and always strive to facilitate a fun and interesting way of learning in the classroom such as acting out or making faces or even imitating sounds of animals.
There are many differences that can be discussed here so it is divided into several categories that are the human itself, the environment and the approach.
For us humans, it is only natural that as you age, your intellectual quotient will be higher. The older, the wiser, as the saying goes, but to explain it further in scientific contexts, it is the human brains’ capacity to process information or input that is being given. As a child, the line between fantasy and reality is not a fine one; everything is like in the animated cartoons they watched and always think of a fairy-tale like to relate to the learning. As they grow older and conscious about their environment, they are capable of a more sophisticated ways of learning. The ability to comprehend complicated matters is higher. In the current state, as we mature, it is easier to understand something complex although the IQ is different between people according to their efforts and exposure to a certain language.
Then, there is the environment factor that as a child, the world is one big playground and the simple mind of a child is very unique in that it receives information without filtering of some kind. As teens, with raging hormones and increasing IQ levels, we perceive the world differently, more conscious to other’s needs and feelings. Emotions might get in the way of learning as they will highly likely to fall in love or had the urge to challenge the authority. The exposure is wider in the current state as we mingle with different people from around the world with their different cultures and the need for higher levels of communication is greater.
Finally, the approach is very different because then, it is more focused on teaching new things and the teachers have the authority. Therefore the learning is more on explanations rather than executions. Now, it is more focused on the use of the language rather than about the language. The communication goes both ways. Self-correct is encouraged and feedbacks from the students are always welcomed in order to prepare for better ways of learning in the future.
There is no right and wrong here, only that it is more on the choices of procedures of learning that is considered sufficient for the learning to expand and executed efficiently.
COMPARISONS BETWEEN THE GRAMMAR TRANSLATION METHOD, AUDIO-LINGUAL METHOD & DESUGGESTOPEDIA
In discussing the comparisons between these methods of teaching and learning, several characteristics have to be covered including concepts, constructs, issues and models of the methods. In this article we will discuss the comparison between the grammar translation method (GTM) that is also known as the Classical Method, that were used since ancient times, the audio-lingual method (ALM) that were developed during world war two and the ‘designer’ method of the 70’s that is Desuggestopedia.
The basic principles behind the GTM, which are focus on grammatical rules, memorisation of vocabulary and of various declensions and conjugations, translations of texts and doing written exercises, while the ALM basically were taught through habit formation where skills are learned more effectively if oral precedes written, grammar is taught inductively through analogy, not analysis like the GTM, and Desuggestopedia are somewhat unconventional where learning occurs through suggestions of materials, where the learners can choose themselves specifically what they wanted to receive, when learners are in a deeply relaxed state of consciousness where the it is induced by Baroque music.
The objectives of the GTM is to gain reading proficiency in a foreign language which learners learn for the sake of being scholarly and having the ability to read and write literature where it is considered superior to spoken language where languages were not being taught primarily to learn oral communication; the objectives of ALM are to gain control of structures of sound, form and order, mastery over symbols of the language where the goal is to achieve native-speaker mastery with virtually none of the grammar and translation found in traditional classes; the objectives of Desuggestopedia are that the learners are going to be delivered advanced conversational competence quickly in a suggestive manner where they are required to master prodigious lists of vocabulary pairs, although the goal is understanding, not memorisation.
The activities of the GTM includes reading and translating difficult classical Latin or Greek literary passages early on in the learning, reading comprehension questions, cognates, synonyms/antonyms, deductive application of rule, fill-in-the-blank, memorisation, use words in sentences, composition based upon some aspect of the reading passage and elaborate explanations on the topic that is learned; the ALM’s activities includes dialogue memorisation, repetition drill, single-slot substitution drill, chain drill, transformation drill, minimal pairs, complete the dialogue and grammar games; Desuggestopedia activities’ includes learners taking initiatives themselves, having question and answer sessions, role-play: pretending to be another person/acting out, listening exercises under deep relaxation with Classical music being played in the background.
The roles of learners in the GTM is that they are imbeciles and therefore they just have to follow the instructions given and just receive what is being given by the teachers, where else the ALM is more or less the same but learners are treated as organisms that can be directed by skilled training techniques to produce correct responses, while learners in Desuggestopedia must maintain a passive state and allow the materials to work on them where they are encouraged to as ‘childlike’ as possible, yielding all authority to the teacher and sometimes assuming the roles (and names) of native speakers of the foreign language. Meanwhile, teachers’ roles in the GTM are like tyrants or fascists where they have all the authority and that student should get the correct answer although not all users of this method are like that. It remains popular as it required few specialised skills on the part of the teachers because tests of grammar rules and translations are easy to construct and can be objectively scored; while teachers in ALM are also central and active where they are dominating. They are like orchestra leaders where they provides models for learners to follow, controls direction and pace of the class, and also conducting, guiding, and controlling the students' behavior in the target language. On the other hand, teachers’ using Desuggestopedia are to create situations in which the learner is most suggestible and present material in a way most likely to encourage positive reception and retention. While learners give full authority to them, they must provide security for the students. They also have to exude confidence.
The materials used in the GTM are books and journals of Classical origin in Latin or Greek while the ALM uses tapes and visuals where the language labs are often used. Meanwhile Desuggestopedia consists of texts, tapes, classroom fixtures and music. The native language are used in teaching using the GTM while the ALM only permitted very little use of the mother tongue which is the same with Desuggestopedia where the native language are used sporadically and only when it is needed to make corrections. The learning in the GTM are quite tedious and little motivation are given to go beyond grammar analogies, translations and rote exercises which the ALM counters by stressing the importance of communications while Desuggestopedia suggests fun activities in the classroom. An overview of all the three methods is that the GTM can be defined as learning ‘the’ language, not how to use the language where else the ALM focuses on intensive oral learning with little use of reading and writing while Desuggestopedia is a different thing altogether because it utilised the power of the human brain and the subconscious effort of learning.
To choose the best method and to apply it in schools is impossible because although the strengths are there, the weaknesses are also present, as translating and reading only will not improve the real world situation, and communication alone, while it is not bad, are not sufficient enough for learners to survive. Desuggestopedia, on the other hand, while interesting and fun, the practicality is an issue that teachers must face where music and comfortable chairs are not available. Therefore, teachers have to combine elements from all the methods and try to create a new method which is suitable ad effective for them to teach but also suitable and effective for the learners and the general views of the surroundings.
The basic principles behind the GTM, which are focus on grammatical rules, memorisation of vocabulary and of various declensions and conjugations, translations of texts and doing written exercises, while the ALM basically were taught through habit formation where skills are learned more effectively if oral precedes written, grammar is taught inductively through analogy, not analysis like the GTM, and Desuggestopedia are somewhat unconventional where learning occurs through suggestions of materials, where the learners can choose themselves specifically what they wanted to receive, when learners are in a deeply relaxed state of consciousness where the it is induced by Baroque music.
The objectives of the GTM is to gain reading proficiency in a foreign language which learners learn for the sake of being scholarly and having the ability to read and write literature where it is considered superior to spoken language where languages were not being taught primarily to learn oral communication; the objectives of ALM are to gain control of structures of sound, form and order, mastery over symbols of the language where the goal is to achieve native-speaker mastery with virtually none of the grammar and translation found in traditional classes; the objectives of Desuggestopedia are that the learners are going to be delivered advanced conversational competence quickly in a suggestive manner where they are required to master prodigious lists of vocabulary pairs, although the goal is understanding, not memorisation.
The activities of the GTM includes reading and translating difficult classical Latin or Greek literary passages early on in the learning, reading comprehension questions, cognates, synonyms/antonyms, deductive application of rule, fill-in-the-blank, memorisation, use words in sentences, composition based upon some aspect of the reading passage and elaborate explanations on the topic that is learned; the ALM’s activities includes dialogue memorisation, repetition drill, single-slot substitution drill, chain drill, transformation drill, minimal pairs, complete the dialogue and grammar games; Desuggestopedia activities’ includes learners taking initiatives themselves, having question and answer sessions, role-play: pretending to be another person/acting out, listening exercises under deep relaxation with Classical music being played in the background.
The roles of learners in the GTM is that they are imbeciles and therefore they just have to follow the instructions given and just receive what is being given by the teachers, where else the ALM is more or less the same but learners are treated as organisms that can be directed by skilled training techniques to produce correct responses, while learners in Desuggestopedia must maintain a passive state and allow the materials to work on them where they are encouraged to as ‘childlike’ as possible, yielding all authority to the teacher and sometimes assuming the roles (and names) of native speakers of the foreign language. Meanwhile, teachers’ roles in the GTM are like tyrants or fascists where they have all the authority and that student should get the correct answer although not all users of this method are like that. It remains popular as it required few specialised skills on the part of the teachers because tests of grammar rules and translations are easy to construct and can be objectively scored; while teachers in ALM are also central and active where they are dominating. They are like orchestra leaders where they provides models for learners to follow, controls direction and pace of the class, and also conducting, guiding, and controlling the students' behavior in the target language. On the other hand, teachers’ using Desuggestopedia are to create situations in which the learner is most suggestible and present material in a way most likely to encourage positive reception and retention. While learners give full authority to them, they must provide security for the students. They also have to exude confidence.
The materials used in the GTM are books and journals of Classical origin in Latin or Greek while the ALM uses tapes and visuals where the language labs are often used. Meanwhile Desuggestopedia consists of texts, tapes, classroom fixtures and music. The native language are used in teaching using the GTM while the ALM only permitted very little use of the mother tongue which is the same with Desuggestopedia where the native language are used sporadically and only when it is needed to make corrections. The learning in the GTM are quite tedious and little motivation are given to go beyond grammar analogies, translations and rote exercises which the ALM counters by stressing the importance of communications while Desuggestopedia suggests fun activities in the classroom. An overview of all the three methods is that the GTM can be defined as learning ‘the’ language, not how to use the language where else the ALM focuses on intensive oral learning with little use of reading and writing while Desuggestopedia is a different thing altogether because it utilised the power of the human brain and the subconscious effort of learning.
To choose the best method and to apply it in schools is impossible because although the strengths are there, the weaknesses are also present, as translating and reading only will not improve the real world situation, and communication alone, while it is not bad, are not sufficient enough for learners to survive. Desuggestopedia, on the other hand, while interesting and fun, the practicality is an issue that teachers must face where music and comfortable chairs are not available. Therefore, teachers have to combine elements from all the methods and try to create a new method which is suitable ad effective for them to teach but also suitable and effective for the learners and the general views of the surroundings.
Theories Involved In the Origins of Language
The origin of language is referred to as the acquisition of the ability to use language by an earlier stage in the evolution of mankind. There are several theories involved in the origin of language that discusses the possibility of where it really comes from. Be it from within human itself or even from a higher source. It is clearly that these theories are only from a certain people’s point of view and are not actual fact whatsoever.
In 1921, Otto Jespersen came up with a theory that says, “Human language originated while human beings were enjoying themselves”. Then, there is the divine source theory which explains the belief in most religions that languages are provided by a divine source. The Christians and the Jews believe God created Adam and the language of Adam, which as name-giver (Gen 2:19), used it to name all living things although most Jewish authorities maintained that Hebrew was the language of God. The Hindus believe that language comes from the goddess Saravati, wife of Brahma, the creator of the universe.
History contains a number of anecdotes about people who attempted to discover the origin of language by experiment. The first such tale was told by Herodotus. He relates that the Egyptian pharaoh Psammetichus (600 B.C.) had two new-born infants raised by a mute shepherd in order to see what language they would speak. When the children were brought before him, one of them said something that sounded to the Pharaoh like bekos, the Phrygian word for bread. From this Psammetichus concluded that the first language was Phrygian. King James V of Scotland is said to have tried a similar experiment: his children were supposed to have spoken Hebrew.
Then there is the natural sounds source theory that hypothesised that primitive words are imitations of the natural sounds which early men and women heard from around them. Example is the object that flew past by them made a cuckoo sound and thus was named the Cuckoo bird. There is also an explanation for onomatopoeic words such as splash, bang, boom, rattle, buzz and hiss which imitates the sounds that is also called bow-wow (Wauwau). It also theorised on the natural cries of emotions such as pain, anger and joy. Examples like ouch, haha that is the Yo-heave-ho theory which explains the sounds of a person involved in physical effort like when lifting trees or mammoths.
The oral gesture source theory hypothesised the link between physical gesture and orally produced sounds that is developed by Sir Richard Paget in 1930 that explains the movement of the tongue when saying goodbye resembles the movement of waving the hand, while glossogenetics focuses on the biological basis of the formation and development of human language. It explains the transition to upright posture which means bipedal or two-legged locomotion.
Physiological adaptation theory explains that physical features of human beings are good clues for their capacity for speech such as the human teeth that is upright and even in height and the human lips with its flexibility that is needed for sounds like p,b and w. Kehlkopf theorised that the human larynx is positioned lower than monkeys and Rachenhohle also said that the longer cavity called pharynx acts as resonator. This theory also stated that the human brain lateralised, which is to have special functions in each of the two hemispheres. The left hemisphere for analytical, tool using, language and mathematics while the right hemisphere for holistic, music and visual-spatial skills.
The last one is interaction which is the use of language to interact with one another, socially or emotionally, to indicate friendliness, cooperation, hostility and also to express annoyance, pain or pleasure, and, transaction which is the transfer of knowledge and skills in the forms of information from one generation to the next through spoken and written language.
It is suffice to say that, although there are many theories involving the origin of language, there is not one that is truly precise in explaining the origin but it is arguably interesting to discuss further in terms of details in every aspects of the origin.
In 1921, Otto Jespersen came up with a theory that says, “Human language originated while human beings were enjoying themselves”. Then, there is the divine source theory which explains the belief in most religions that languages are provided by a divine source. The Christians and the Jews believe God created Adam and the language of Adam, which as name-giver (Gen 2:19), used it to name all living things although most Jewish authorities maintained that Hebrew was the language of God. The Hindus believe that language comes from the goddess Saravati, wife of Brahma, the creator of the universe.
History contains a number of anecdotes about people who attempted to discover the origin of language by experiment. The first such tale was told by Herodotus. He relates that the Egyptian pharaoh Psammetichus (600 B.C.) had two new-born infants raised by a mute shepherd in order to see what language they would speak. When the children were brought before him, one of them said something that sounded to the Pharaoh like bekos, the Phrygian word for bread. From this Psammetichus concluded that the first language was Phrygian. King James V of Scotland is said to have tried a similar experiment: his children were supposed to have spoken Hebrew.
Then there is the natural sounds source theory that hypothesised that primitive words are imitations of the natural sounds which early men and women heard from around them. Example is the object that flew past by them made a cuckoo sound and thus was named the Cuckoo bird. There is also an explanation for onomatopoeic words such as splash, bang, boom, rattle, buzz and hiss which imitates the sounds that is also called bow-wow (Wauwau). It also theorised on the natural cries of emotions such as pain, anger and joy. Examples like ouch, haha that is the Yo-heave-ho theory which explains the sounds of a person involved in physical effort like when lifting trees or mammoths.
The oral gesture source theory hypothesised the link between physical gesture and orally produced sounds that is developed by Sir Richard Paget in 1930 that explains the movement of the tongue when saying goodbye resembles the movement of waving the hand, while glossogenetics focuses on the biological basis of the formation and development of human language. It explains the transition to upright posture which means bipedal or two-legged locomotion.
Physiological adaptation theory explains that physical features of human beings are good clues for their capacity for speech such as the human teeth that is upright and even in height and the human lips with its flexibility that is needed for sounds like p,b and w. Kehlkopf theorised that the human larynx is positioned lower than monkeys and Rachenhohle also said that the longer cavity called pharynx acts as resonator. This theory also stated that the human brain lateralised, which is to have special functions in each of the two hemispheres. The left hemisphere for analytical, tool using, language and mathematics while the right hemisphere for holistic, music and visual-spatial skills.
The last one is interaction which is the use of language to interact with one another, socially or emotionally, to indicate friendliness, cooperation, hostility and also to express annoyance, pain or pleasure, and, transaction which is the transfer of knowledge and skills in the forms of information from one generation to the next through spoken and written language.
It is suffice to say that, although there are many theories involving the origin of language, there is not one that is truly precise in explaining the origin but it is arguably interesting to discuss further in terms of details in every aspects of the origin.
The Properties of Language
Language is a particular kind of system for encoding and decoding information. It is used to communicate or spreading information. In order to understand a certain language better, we need to identify the properties and the characteristics of language. There are several properties of language that have identified, that is divided into six sub-categories, which is displacement, arbitrariness, productivity, cultural transmission, discreteness and duality.
Displacement is defined as human language that users can refer to past and future time and to other locations which allows us to talk about things and events not present in the immediate environment such as to talk about things and places whose existence we cannot be sure of. Animal communication is almost exclusively designed for this moment, here and now. Yet, human language allows the users of a language to talk about the past, present and future, things that do not exist in real life.
Arbitrariness means there is no natural connection between a linguistic form and its meaning. There is no natural relation between the word and what the word designates. However, in animal’s communication, there is a connection between the message and the signal used to convey the message. Their communication consists of a set of fixed and limited sets of vocals and gastrula forms. Example is a dog barking and salivating.
Productivity is when humans were capable of creating new expressions for new objects. It is an aspect of a language which is linked to the fact that the potential number of utterances in any human language is infinite. Yet, on human signalling, it appears to have little flexibility. They have a limited set of signals to choose from a fixed reference.
Cultural transmission is when humans inherit physical features from their parents but not language. Language is passed on from one generation to the next, acquiring the language from other speakers and not from parental genes. Animals’ communicative signals are produced instinctively and not learned.
Discreteness means sounds that are meaningfully distinct. For example, the pronunciation of pack and back leads to distinction of meaning and that is only due to the difference between p and b sounds in English. In speech production that is the spoken language, two distinct levels are recognised which is a level of distinct sounds and a level of distinct meaning.
Duality means language that is organised at two levels simultaneously. This property is called duality or double articulation. We have a physical level at which we can produce individual sounds like n, b and i. When we produce these sounds in a particular combination as in bin, we have another level producing a meaning which is different from the combination in nib. Therefore, at one level, we have distinct sounds and different meanings in another level we have this is economical features while animal’s communicative signals are fixed and cannot be broken into parts such as meow is not m+e+o+w.
Other properties includes the vocal-auditory channel, which is the speech sounds used in human communication are produced by the vocal organs and perceived via the ears, reciprocity, which involves a speaker and a listener for the communication to occur, specialisation, where linguistics signals are only for language-communication, non-directionality, that once produced, linguistic signals spread out in all directions, and rapid fade where linguistic signals are produced and disappear quickly.
It is suffice to say that this list is not exhaustive in its entirety but might be good to study the details of what is behind every language. These properties make up the language and therefore are the key to the progress of human communication.
Displacement is defined as human language that users can refer to past and future time and to other locations which allows us to talk about things and events not present in the immediate environment such as to talk about things and places whose existence we cannot be sure of. Animal communication is almost exclusively designed for this moment, here and now. Yet, human language allows the users of a language to talk about the past, present and future, things that do not exist in real life.
Arbitrariness means there is no natural connection between a linguistic form and its meaning. There is no natural relation between the word and what the word designates. However, in animal’s communication, there is a connection between the message and the signal used to convey the message. Their communication consists of a set of fixed and limited sets of vocals and gastrula forms. Example is a dog barking and salivating.
Productivity is when humans were capable of creating new expressions for new objects. It is an aspect of a language which is linked to the fact that the potential number of utterances in any human language is infinite. Yet, on human signalling, it appears to have little flexibility. They have a limited set of signals to choose from a fixed reference.
Cultural transmission is when humans inherit physical features from their parents but not language. Language is passed on from one generation to the next, acquiring the language from other speakers and not from parental genes. Animals’ communicative signals are produced instinctively and not learned.
Discreteness means sounds that are meaningfully distinct. For example, the pronunciation of pack and back leads to distinction of meaning and that is only due to the difference between p and b sounds in English. In speech production that is the spoken language, two distinct levels are recognised which is a level of distinct sounds and a level of distinct meaning.
Duality means language that is organised at two levels simultaneously. This property is called duality or double articulation. We have a physical level at which we can produce individual sounds like n, b and i. When we produce these sounds in a particular combination as in bin, we have another level producing a meaning which is different from the combination in nib. Therefore, at one level, we have distinct sounds and different meanings in another level we have this is economical features while animal’s communicative signals are fixed and cannot be broken into parts such as meow is not m+e+o+w.
Other properties includes the vocal-auditory channel, which is the speech sounds used in human communication are produced by the vocal organs and perceived via the ears, reciprocity, which involves a speaker and a listener for the communication to occur, specialisation, where linguistics signals are only for language-communication, non-directionality, that once produced, linguistic signals spread out in all directions, and rapid fade where linguistic signals are produced and disappear quickly.
It is suffice to say that this list is not exhaustive in its entirety but might be good to study the details of what is behind every language. These properties make up the language and therefore are the key to the progress of human communication.
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